Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a major global health challenge, disproportionately affecting low- and middle-income countries. In 2024, 589 million adults aged 20–79 years were living with diabetes, causing 3.4 million deaths and over US$1 trillion in health expenditure; prevalence is projected to reach 853 million by 2050 (1). Beyond hyperglycaemia, T2D is increasingly recognized as a complex, multisystem disorder associated with the cardiovascular, renal, and hepatic sy